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The standard for the name "mushroom" is
the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the
word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi
(Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes) that have a stem (stipe), a cap (pileus),
and gills (lamellae, sing. lamella) on the underside of the cap.
"Mushroom" also describes a variety of other gilled fungi, with or
without stems, therefore the term is used to describe the fleshy fruiting
bodies of some Ascomycota. These gills produce microscopic spores that
help the fungus spread across the ground or its occupant surface.
Forms deviating from the
standard morphology usually have more specific names, such as
"bolete", "puffball", "stinkhorn", and
"morel", and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called
"agarics" in reference to their similarity to Agaricus or
their order Agaricales. By extension, the term "mushroom" can
also designate the entire fungus when in culture; the thallus (called
a mycelium) of species forming the fruiting bodies called mushrooms; or
the species itself.
Identifying mushrooms requires a
basic understanding of their macroscopic structure. Most
are Basidiomycetes and gilled. Their spores,
called basidiospores, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of
powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level the
basidiospores are shot off basidia and then fall between the gills in
the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and
placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflecting the shape of
the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the fruit body is
sporulating). The color of the powdery print, called a spore print, is
used to help classify mushrooms and can help to identify them. Spore print
colors include white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow,
and creamy, but almost never blue, green, or red.
While modern identification of mushrooms
is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are
still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back
to medieval times and the Victorian era, combined with
microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising
reactions, odors, tastes, shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all
considered by both amateur and professional mycologists. Tasting and smelling
mushrooms carries its own hazards because of poisons and allergens.
Chemical tests are also used for some genera.
In general, identification
to genus can often be accomplished in the field using a local
mushroom guide. Identification to species, however, requires more effort;
one must remember that a mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature
structure, and only the latter can provide certain characteristics needed for
the identification of the species. However, over-mature specimens lose features
and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on
paper for white spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids
on lamella edges for colored spored prints.
Typical mushrooms are the fruit
bodies of members of the order Agaricales, whose type
genus is Agaricus and type species is the field
mushroom, Agaricus campestris. However, in
modern molecularly defined classifications, not all members of
the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruit bodies, and many other gilled
fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders of the
class Agaricomycetes. For example, chanterelles are in
the Cantharellales, false chanterelles such as Gomphus are
in the Gomphales, milk-cap mushrooms (Lactarius, Lactifluus)
and russulas (Russula), as well as Lentinellus, are in
the Russulales, while the tough, leathery genera Lentinus and Panus are
among the Polyporales, but Neolentinus is in
the Gloeophyllales, and the little pin-mushroom genus, Rickenella,
along with similar genera, are in the Hymenochaetales.
Within the main body of mushrooms, in
the Agaricales, are common fungi like the common fairy-ring
mushroom, shiitake, enoki, oyster mushrooms, fly
agarics and other Amanitas, magic mushrooms like species
of Psilocybe, paddy straw mushrooms, shaggy manes, etc.
An atypical mushroom is
the lobster mushroom, which is a deformed,
cooked-lobster-colored parasitized fruitbody of a Russula or Lactarius,
colored and deformed by the mycoparasitic Ascomycete Hypomyces
lactifluorum.
Other mushrooms are not gilled, so
the term "mushroom" is loosely used, and giving a full account of
their classifications is difficult. Some have pores underneath (and are usually
called boletes), others have spines, such as the hedgehog
mushroom and other tooth fungi, and so on.
"Mushroom" has been
used for polypores, puffballs, jelly fungi, coral
fungi, bracket fungi, stinkhorns, and cup fungi. Thus, the term
is more one of common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting
bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning. Approximately
14,000 species of mushrooms are described.
The terms "mushroom" and
"toadstool" go back centuries and were never precisely defined, nor
was there consensus on application. Between 1400 and 1600 AD, the terms mushrom,
mushrum, muscheron, mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns were used.
The term "mushroom" and its
variations may have been derived from the French word mousseron in
reference to moss (mousse). However, delineation between
edible and poisonous fungi is not clear-cut, so a "mushroom" may be
edible, poisonous, or unpalatable.
Cultural or social
phobias of mushrooms and fungi may be related. The term
"fungophobia" was coined by William Delisle
Hay of England, who noted a national superstition or fear
of "toadstools"
The word "toadstool" has apparent
analogies in Dutch padde(n)stoel (toad-stool/chair,
mushroom) and German Krötenschwamm (toad-fungus, alt.
word for panther cap). In German folklore and old fairy tales, toads are
often depicted sitting on toadstool mushrooms and catching, with their tongues,
the flies that are said to be drawn to the Fliegenpilz, a German
name for the toadstool, meaning "flies' mushroom". This is how the
mushroom got another of its names, Krötenstuhl (a less-used
German name for the mushroom), literally translating to "toad-stool".
A mushroom develops from a nodule, or
pinhead, less than two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium, which
is typically found on or near the surface of the substrate. It is formed
within the mycelium, the mass of threadlike hyphae that make up
the fungus. The primordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven
hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a "button". The button has a
cottony roll of mycelium, the universal veil, that surrounds the
developing fruit body. As the egg expands, the universal veil ruptures and may
remain as a cup, or volva, at the base of the stalk, or as warts or
volval patches on the cap. Many mushrooms lack a universal veil, therefore they
do not have either a volva or volval patches. Often, a second layer of tissue,
the partial veil, covers the bladelike gills that
bear spores. As the cap expands, the veil breaks, and remnants of the
partial veil may remain as a ring, or annulus, around the middle of the
stalk or as fragments hanging from the margin of the cap. The ring may be
skirt-like as in some species of Amanita, collar-like as in many
species of Lepiota, or merely the faint remnants of a cortina (a
partial veil composed of filaments resembling a spiderweb), which is typical of
the genus Cortinarius. Mushrooms lacking partial veils do not form
an annulus.
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